Indigenous Peoples in Brazilthreats and Solutionsamazon Review

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Enquiry Article

Oil and Gas Projects in the Western Amazon: Threats to Wilderness, Biodiversity, and Indigenous Peoples

• Matt Finer,
• Clinton N. Jenkins,
• Stuart L. Pimm,
• Brian Keane,
• Carl Ross

x

• Published: August 13, 2008
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002932

Figures

Abstract

Background

The western Amazon is the most biologically rich office of the Amazon basin and is home to a smashing multifariousness of indigenous indigenous groups, including some of the earth's last uncontacted peoples living in voluntary isolation. Unlike the eastern Brazilian Amazon, it is nonetheless a largely intact ecosystem. Underlying this landscape are large reserves of oil and gas, many yet untapped. The growing global demand is leading to unprecedented exploration and development in the region.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Nosotros synthesized data from authorities sources to quantify the status of oil development in the western Amazon. National governments circumscribe specific geographic areas or "blocks" that are zoned for hydrocarbon activities, which they may lease to state and multinational energy companies for exploration and production. Nearly 180 oil and gas blocks now cover ∼688,000 km² of the western Amazon. These blocks overlap the most species-rich function of the Amazon. We as well found that many of the blocks overlap ethnic territories, both titled lands and areas utilized past peoples in voluntary isolation. In Ecuador and Peru, oil and gas blocks at present embrace more 2-thirds of the Amazon. In Bolivia and western Brazil, major exploration activities are set to increase rapidly.

Conclusions/Significance

Without improved policies, the increasing scope and magnitude of planned extraction ways that environmental and social impacts are likely to intensify. Nosotros review the most pressing oil- and gas-related conservation policy problems confronting the region. These include the need for regional Strategic Environmental Impact Assessments and the adoption of roadless extraction techniques. We too consider the conflicts where the blocks overlap indigenous peoples' territories.

Commendation: Finer Thousand, Jenkins CN, Pimm SL, Keane B, Ross C (2008) Oil and Gas Projects in the Western Amazon: Threats to Wilderness, Biodiversity, and Indigenous Peoples. PLoS ONE iii(viii): e2932. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002932

Editor: Dennis Marinus Hansen, Stanford University, United states of america of America

Received: June five, 2008; Accepted: July 13, 2008; Published: August 13, 2008

Copyright: © 2008 Finer et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: This work was supported past the Forrest C. and Frances H. Lattner Foundation Inc. The funders had no role in study design, data drove and assay, conclusion to publish, or grooming of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The western Amazon includes parts of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and western Brazil (Effigy 1). It is i of the most biodiverse areas of the planet for many taxa, including plants, insects, amphibians, birds, and mammals [ane]–[7]. The region maintains large tracts of intact tropical moist woods and has a high probability of stable climatic conditions in the face of global warming [8]. By dissimilarity, the eastern Amazon in Brazil, where much of the global attention has focused, has a loftier probability of continued massive deforestation [9] and drought risk in the coming decades [10]. The western Amazon is besides the home to many indigenous indigenous groups, including some of the earth's last uncontacted peoples living in voluntary isolation [xi]–[13].

Underlying this mural of boggling biological and cultural multifariousness are large reserves of oil and gas, many yet untapped. Record oil prices and growing global demand are now stimulating unprecedented levels of new oil and gas exploration and extraction. Information technology is the nations of the region, and non the indigenous peoples who alive on much of the country, who affirm their constitutional ownership of subsoil natural resources. National governments delimit specific geographic areas or "blocks" that are zoned for hydrocarbon activities, which they may lease to state and multinational energy companies for exploration and product.

Oil exploration in the western Amazon started equally early as the 1920s in Republic of peru [xiv] and Republic of ecuador [fifteen], with a production boom arriving in the 1970s. The subsequent three decades accept seen numerous big projects, such as several oil projects in the central Ecuadorian Amazon, the Urucu gas project in Brazil, and the Camisea gas project in Republic of peru.

Oil and gas development in the western Amazon has already caused major environmental and social impacts 16–19. Direct impacts include deforestation for access roads, drilling platforms, and pipelines, and contagion from oil spills and wastewater discharges. The technologies of the 1970s-era oil operations caused widespread contamination in the northern Ecuadorian [20]–[21] and northern Peruvian Amazon [22]–[23]. Even the much newer Camisea pipeline, which began operations in the fall of 2004, had five major spills in its first 18 months of performance [24]. A 1990s-era oil performance experienced a major spill in Ecuador's Yasuní region as recently as Jan 2008 [25]. There are also direct impacts associated with seismic testing activities during the exploration phase of projects [17], [26].

Indirect effects arise from the easy access to previously remote primary forest provided by new oil roads and pipeline routes, causing increased logging, hunting, and deforestation from human settlement [27]–[29]. For example, much of the all-encompassing deforestation in the northern and key Ecuadorian Amazon followed colonization along the oil access roads [30]–[32].

Social impacts are also considerable. The national representative organizations of indigenous peoples in Ecuador (CONAIE) and the Peruvian Amazon (AIDESEP) take opposed new oil and gas projects, citing the widespread contamination from previous and current oil projects [33]–[34]. In both countries, local residents and indigenous peoples have taken legal deportment against U.S. oil companies for allegedly dumping billions of gallons of toxic waste matter into the forests [35]–[37]. Intense opposition from indigenous peoples has stopped exploration in ii leased blocks in Ecuador (Blocks 23 and 24) for over seven years [38]. Deforestation and colonization following route edifice has afflicted the core territory of several indigenous groups in Ecuador. Oil and gas projects in the territories of indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation accept become highly contentious. These peoples, and so named due to their decision of avoiding contact with the outside globe [11], inhabit remote parts of the western Amazon [11]–[13] and are extremely vulnerable considering they lack resistance or immunity from outsiders' diseases [39]. Commencement contact results in high rates of morbidity and bloodshed, with mortality estimates ranging betwixt a third and half of the population within the kickoff several years [11].

The extent and intensity of oil and gas exploration and development in the western Amazon may before long increase speedily. Information on the future of oil and gas activities beyond the unabridged region is limited. Here, we quantify and map the extent of current and proposed oil and gas action across the western Amazon using information from government and news sources. We document how the oil and gas blocks overlap areas of superlative biodiversity, protected areas, and indigenous territories. Finally, we discuss policy options that might mitigate the impacts.

Results

There are now ∼180 oil and gas blocks roofing ∼688,000 km² of woods in the western Amazon (Effigy 2). At least 35 multinational oil and gas companies operate these blocks, which overlap the most species-rich function of the Amazon for amphibians, birds, and mammals (Figure 3). Oil and gas projects affect the wood of all western Amazonian nations, simply to varying degrees. For example, in both Ecuador and Peru blocks at present cover more than than two-thirds of the Amazon, while in Colombia that fraction is less than one-tenth. In Republic of bolivia and western Brazil, historical impacts are minimal, but the area open to oil and gas exploration is increasing rapidly.

Effigy 2. Oil and gas blocks in the western Amazon.

Solid xanthous indicates blocks already leased out to companies. Hashed yellow indicates proposed blocks or blocks still in the negotiation phase. Protected areas shown are those considered strictly protected by the IUCN (categories I to Iii).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002932.g002

Figure iii. Overlap of oil and gas blocks with biodiversity and protected areas.

The number of species of mammals (A), birds (B), and amphibians (C) beyond the Americas, where the highest diversity occurs in the western Amazon. Detailed view of the western Amazon region, outlined by the box in A, for mammals (D), birds (Eastward), and amphibians (F). In this region hydrocarbon blocks overlap areas of exceptionally high biodiversity. Protected areas shown are those considered strictly protected by the IUCN (categories I to Iii).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002932.g003

In 2003, Peru reduced royalties to promote investment, sparking a new exploration boom. There are now 48 active blocks under contract with multinational companies in the Peruvian Amazon (Figure iv). The government has leased all but eight in just the by iv years. At least 16 more than blocks are likely to be signed in 2008. These 64 blocks cover ∼72% of the Peruvian Amazon (∼490,000 km²). The only areas fully protected from oil and gas activities are national parks and national and historic sanctuaries, which embrace ∼12% of the total Peruvian Amazon. However, twenty blocks overlap 11 less strictly protected areas, such as Communal Reserves and Reserved Zones. At least 58 of the 64 blocks overlay lands titled to indigenous peoples. Farther, 17 blocks overlap areas that take proposed or created reserves for ethnic groups in voluntary isolation.

Figure 4. Focus on Peru.

Oil and gas blocks in Republic of peru, including all IUCN categorized Amazonian protected areas, protected areas not notwithstanding placed in an IUCN category, and key features discussed in the text.

https://doi.org/ten.1371/periodical.pone.0002932.g004

Several large recent oil discoveries in the remote forests on the Peruvian side of the Republic of peru-Ecuador border will likely trigger a new wave of development. Initial estimates betoken over 500 million barrels in Blocks 67 and 39 (labeled in Figure 4), the former of which has recently begun its development phase [xl]. Gas development in the Camisea region is probable to go on as well. A new gas discovery in the region announced in January 2008 brought the proven reserves of the Camisea area to over xv trillion cubic anxiety. In improver, a wave of exploration is about to begin as the forty blocks leased out over the last iv years brainstorm operations on the ground. In 2007 solitary, the government approved the Ecology Impact Studies (EIS, see below) for 10 blocks that are gear up to brainstorm immediate seismic testing and drilling of exploratory wells.

The Ecuadorian government has zoned ∼65% of the Amazon for oil activities (∼52,300 km²) (Figure 5). Blocks overlap the ancestral or titled lands of x indigenous groups. Oil development began in the north in the 1970s. The oil frontier in Ecuador has now shifted south, where a quarter of Ecuador's untapped oil reserves prevarication in Yasuní National Park, the country's principal Amazonian national park. Unlike Peru, Republic of ecuador permits oil and gas extraction in national parks. In January 2007, the Ecuadorian government, nonetheless, delimited a seven,580 km² "Zona Intangible" — an area off-limits to oil, gas, and logging activities — via Presidential Decree in the southern role of Yasuní. It protects a portion of the territory of the Tagaeri and Taromenane, the country's two known indigenous groups in voluntary isolation. To the southwest of Yasuní, intense opposition [38] from indigenous peoples has stopped exploration in ii leased blocks (Blocks 23 and 24) for over 7 years. Just to the east of these two blocks, the entire southeastern function of the Ecuadorian Amazon has been zoned into blocks, only not yet offered to multinational oil companies. Newer oil operations from the 1990s and this decade (Blocks 15, 16, and 31) have built new access roads into the master forests of the Yasuní region. At the time of writing, Ecuador's Constituent Assembly just completed a new Constitution prohibiting extraction in protected areas except by Presidential petition in the name of national interest.

Figure 5. Focus on Republic of ecuador.

Oil and gas blocks in Republic of ecuador, including all IUCN categorized Amazonian protected areas and key features discussed in the text. Oil blocks discussed in the text are numbered.

https://doi.org/ten.1371/journal.pone.0002932.g005

In Bolivia, two leased Amazonian exploration blocks comprehend ∼xv,000 km², including large parts of Madidi and Isiboro Securé National Parks and Pilon-Lajas Biosphere Reserve. Activeness on these blocks has stalled for several years, but recent Bolivian newspaper reports indicate that exploration in this region is imminent [41]. Multinational oil companies operate these blocks, but now the land oil companies of Republic of bolivia and Venezuela are joining forces to explore the region. In August 2007, Bolivian President Evo Morales and Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez created a new visitor composed of the country oil companies of the two nations [42]. I of the master tasks of this new company is to explore for oil in the newly created blocks surrounding Madidi.

In 2005, the Brazilian regime leased out 25 contiguous blocks surrounding the Urucu and Jurua gas fields in the state of Amazonas, bringing the full leased expanse to ∼67,000 km². These new blocks lie within a largely intact part of the Brazilian Amazon [43]. The Urucu fields already contain producing gas wells, but the Jurua field, discovered in 1978, has even so to be exploited. A most 400 km roadless gas pipeline is being constructed to connect the Urucu gas fields to Manaus [44]. Another pipeline has been proposed to bear gas over 500 km to Porto Velho in the state of Rondônia. Brazil's National Petroleum Agency has also recently announced plans to look for oil and gas in the Amazonian land of Acre on the border with Republic of peru and Bolivia [45].

In the Colombian Amazon, 35 exploration and production blocks (∼12,300 km²) are concentrated within and around Putumayo Department on the edge with Ecuador. Production in Putumayo peaked years ago, but much of the oil in this region and across may exist yet untapped or undiscovered [46]. Colombia'south Hydrocarbon Agency recently appear a new 2008 behest round, featuring nine new blocks in Putumayo. Over 90% of the Colombian Amazon is currently free from oil activities.

Discussion

In sum, more than 180 oil and gas blocks at present overlap the almost species-rich part of the Amazon, including areas having the earth'due south greatest known diversity of trees, insects, and amphibians. The threat to amphibians is of particular business, not simply because so much of their global diversity is concentrated in the western Amazon, but also because they are already the about threatened vertebrate taxa worldwide [v]. Many blocks besides cover protected areas — such as national parks in Ecuador and Republic of bolivia and a variety of lower-level protected areas in Peru — that were originally established for biodiversity protection.

Many of the oil and gas blocks are in remote areas and overlap ethnic territories, both titled lands and areas utilized by peoples in voluntary isolation. Moreover, the scope and magnitude of planned activity appears unprecedented. For instance, of the 64 blocks now covering the Peruvian Amazon, all but eight have been created since 2004.

Oil and gas evolution in the western Amazon has already acquired major environmental and social impacts. Given the increasing scope and magnitude of planned hydrocarbon activity, these problems are likely to intensify without improved policies.

Information technology is to those policies that nosotros at present plough. We consider the impacts of roads, the requirement of complimentary, prior and informed consent, the special needs of peoples living in voluntary isolation, the employ of strategic environmental impact assessments, and the role of the international community. In each instance, the policies adopted will have significant impacts ane way or some other on the region's biodiversity and the fate of its indigenous peoples. This is not an exhaustive list, but topics our experiences suggest are the nigh important.

Roads

Roads are one of the strongest correlates of Amazonian deforestation [47]–[48]. New access roads cause considerable straight impacts — such as habitat fragmentation — and often trigger even greater indirect impacts, such as colonization [30], illegal logging [49], and unsustainable hunting [27]–[28]. Animals often targeted by local and indigenous hunters are involved in key ecological processes such every bit seed dispersal and seed predation [50]. The overhunting of big primates, for example, has the potential to change the limerick and spatial distribution of western Amazon forests due to the loss of these of import seed dispersers [51]. Fifty-fifty a rough extrapolation from the oil extraction in previous decades suggests that the planned wave of oil and gas activity may similarly fragment and dethrone largely intact forests over huge areas in coming years and decades.

Two Amazonian modeling efforts indicate that deforestation is concentrated in the eastern and southern Brazilian Amazon — areas with high road density — but the western Amazon is largely intact due its remoteness and lack of roads [9], [43]. Oil and gas blocks, however, now make full much of these remote areas. A master business is that new oil and gas projects could bring a proliferation of new admission routes throughout the western Amazon. Indeed, pending oil and gas projects are currently the primary threat to areas in eastern Republic of ecuador (Blocks 31 and ITT), northern Peru (Blocks 39 and 67), Peru's Camisea region, Brazil'south Urucu region, and Bolivia's Madidi region.

Oil access roads are a main goad of deforestation and associated impacts. A written report from scientists working in Ecuador concluded that impacts along new admission roads could non be adequately controlled or managed, particularly in regards to actions of the area'due south local or indigenous peoples [52]. The report, along with opposition by the Waorani indigenous people, pressured the Ecuadorian government, which banned Petrobras from building a road into Yasuní National Park in July 2005. The regime forced the company to redesign the project without a major admission road. As of this writing, Petrobras plans to use helicopters to transport all materials, supplies, equipment, and people to and from the well sites, with oil flowing out via a roadless pipeline. This decision past the Ecuadorian regime might set an important precedent for policy: no new oil access roads through wilderness areas. A major roadless oil project in Republic of ecuador's Block 10 was the region's outset example that such development is possible [53], and Cake fifteen also features a roadless pipeline with canopy bridges. Elimination of new roads could significantly reduce the impacts of about projects.

Complimentary, Prior and Informed Consent

Governments claim the authority to manage natural resources located on or below ethnic peoples territories for the public interest, while indigenous peoples merits that their rights to property and territory allow them the right to free, prior and informed Consent (FPIC) regarding proposed extractive projects on their lands [54]–[55].

The key distinction lies between consultation and consent. International police — namely the 1989 International Labour System's Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention No. 169 — clearly mandates that indigenous peoples be consulted about development projects on their territories [56]. Indeed, national regulations in Republic of ecuador and Republic of peru, for example, mandate such consultation [57]–[58]. The question is, do indigenous peoples accept the right to reject a projection planned on their territory after beingness properly consulted? The latest international instruments signal "yes". The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Ethnic Peoples — adopted past the General Assembly in 2007 — emphasizes FPIC prior to authorities approval of any project affecting indigenous lands or territories [59]. Also in 2007, the Inter-American Court on Human Rights issued a landmark ruling, Case of the Saramaka People 5. Suriname, that the State must ensure the right of local peoples to give or withhold their consent in regard to development projects that may touch their territory [55].

A prerequisite for effective FPIC procedures is that indigenous peoples possess legal championship to their traditional lands. The Inter-American Human Rights Arrangement has dealt extensively with this issue. In 1998, the Inter-American Commission plant that information technology is a violation of the American Convention on Human Rights (Article 21, Correct to Holding) for a government to grant an extractive concession without the consent of the indigenous peoples of the area. The Inter-American Court later ruled that this correct to property requires the titling of their traditional territory [60]. Although many communities and nationalities have obtained such title, others even so take not (or else the process is incomplete). Given that almost of the oil blocks in question are in ethnic areas, the resolution of who controls the land and its sub-surface resources volition profoundly influence the development of the region.

Ethnic Peoples in Voluntary Isolation

The situations in Ecuador and Republic of peru highlight two of the major issues concerning hydrocarbons and indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation: a lack of understanding of the total extent of the territories of peoples in voluntary isolation and debate regarding "intangibilidad" — or untouchablility — of their known territories.

In Ecuador, the government created a Zona Intangible (Untouchable Zone) to protect the territory of its ii known isolated groups from oil evolution in 1999 and delimited the vii,580-km² zone via Presidential Decree in Jan 2007. Still, testimonies from local indigenous Waorani indicate that signs of the Taromenane and Tagaeri are sometimes seen in areas that are covered by oil blocks, north of and outside the Zona Intangible. Moreover, the Taromenane speared to death an illegal logger outside the northern limit of the Zona Intangible in March 2008 [61], the clearest show to engagement that they range outside the demarcated zone.

In Peru, the Law for the Protection of Isolated Peoples in Voluntary Isolation (Law 28736) was passed in May of 2006, and implementing Regulations were issued by Presidential Prescript in October 2007. The "untouchable" graphic symbol of protective reserves for peoples in voluntary isolation may be cleaved for the exploitation of natural resources deemed by the land to be in the public interest, a loophole that allows extraction of oil and gas. Another major issue in Peru concerns hydrocarbon activities in areas formally proposed to be reserves for peoples in voluntary isolation. At least 15 blocks overlap such proposed reserves.

In May 2006, the Inter-American Committee on Homo Rights granted precautionary measures in favor of the two known groups in voluntary isolation in the Ecuadorian Amazon, the Tagaeri and Taromenane, due to threats they face from oil activities and illegal logging. These measures call for the government to prohibit the entry of "3rd persons" — which would include oil companies — into their territory. In March 2007, the Inter-American Commission urged the Peruvian authorities, again through precautionary measures, to protect the indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation in the Madre de Dios region from threats posed by illegal logging. In 2007, indigenous organizations made 3 more requests to the Inter-American Commission for precautionary measures needed to stem the threats to uncontacted peoples posed by oil and gas projects in Peru.

Strategic Ecology Assessments

Nations of the region crave projection-specific Environmental Bear upon Studies (EIS) prior to oil and gas exploration or exploitation projects. The oil companies contract the firms to comport the studies, a system that clearly lacks independent analysis. Moreover, there are typically no comprehensive analyses of the long-term, cumulative, and synergistic impacts of multiple oil and gas projects across a wider region, mostly referred to as a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) [62].

In Peru, hydrocarbon blocks at present overlap 20 protected areas. Thirteen of these protected areas preceded creation of the oil blocks and lack compatibility studies required by the Protected Areas Police [63]. An SEA could deal with these types of problems.

For case, in the Napo Moist Forest ecoregion of northern Peru, 28 blocks form a virtually continuous oil zone. At that place has been well-nigh no regional planning, no analysis of the cumulative and long-term impacts, and no strategic planning for long-term protections of biodiversity and indigenous peoples. No national parks exist in the region, then there are no areas strictly off-limits to oil evolution. Indeed, the mass of oil blocks overlap 2 lower-level protected areas, several proposed protected areas, numerous titled indigenous territories, and a proposed Territorial Reserve to protect the indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation living in the core of the region. The development of proper SEAs would potentially reduce the negative impacts across the wider region of the western Amazon.

Role of International Customs

In 2006, over one-half of Ecuador's full oil production went to the Us, including about 90% of the heavy rough coming out of the controversial OCP pipeline [64]–[65]. Much of the oil feeding this pipeline comes from projects in sensitive areas, such as Yasuní National Park. In Peru, American, Canadian, European, and Chinese companies drive the exploration and exploitation of the Amazon.

Ecuador has proposed an innovative opportunity [66] for the world to share in the responsibility of protecting the Amazon. In April 2007, the President of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, announced that the government's preferred option for the largest untapped oil reserve, located beneath Republic of ecuador's principal Amazonian national park (Yasuní), is to leave it permanently undercover in exchange for compensation from the international community. The oil fields, known as Ishpingo-Tiputini-Tambococha (ITT), are within one of the most remote and intact parts of Yasuní National Park, and are part of the bequeathed territory of the Waorani.

Summary

While the history of oil and gas extraction in the western Amazon is one of massive ecological and social disruption, the future need not repeat the past. Roadless extraction would greatly reduce environmental and social impacts. Proper attention to the rights of indigenous peoples and the outright protection of lands of peoples living in voluntary isolation, who, by definition cannot give informed consent, would bring exploration within widely accepted international norms of social justice. Disinterested, regional scale strategic environmental assessments would foreclose piecemeal damage across large areas. Finally, the international community tin can play a office in widening the options available to the region's nations and its ethnic peoples.

Methods

Nigh data on oil blocks and pipelines are from government sources and were publicly available online at the time of submission. These include Colombia's Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos (http://www.anh.gov.co), Ecuador's Ministerio de Minas y Petróleos (http://www.menergia.gov.ec), Peru'south Perupetro (http://www.perupetro.com.pe) and Ministerio de Energía y Minas (http://www.minem.gob.pe/hidrocarburos/index.asp), Bolivia'due south Ministerio de Hidrocarburos y Energía (http://www.hidrocarburos.gov.bo), and Brazil'southward Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis (http://www.anp.gov.br). When necessary, downloaded maps of boundaries of oil blocks and their attributes were digitized using ArcGIS 9.2.

We as well collected information from major newspapers of the region, particularly El Comercio in Ecuador and La Razon in Bolivia.

Boundaries of protected areas are from the World Database of Protected Areas [67]. We digitized the boundaries of Parque Nacional Ichigkat Muja - Cordillera Del Condor, Santiago – Comaina, and Sierra del Divisor from maps available from the Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales (http://www.inrena.gob.pe). We divided protected areas into strictly (I to III) and less strictly (4 to Vi) protected groups according to the IUCN categories for protected areas [68]. These categories range from I to VI, with lower numbers representing management to maintain natural ecosystems and processes, while higher numbers correspond management oriented towards human recreation and sustainable resource extraction.

We converted biodiversity information for birds [69]–[70], mammals [71]–[72], and amphibians [73] to raster format and analyzed them in ArcGIS. For birds, we used merely the breeding range for each species.

Size estimates of blocks were calculated using ArcGIS and verified by comparing to published accounts in government sources.

To calculate the percentage of Ecuadorian and Peruvian Amazon zoned into oil and gas blocks, we used the information in [74] for the size of the Ecuadorian Amazon (81,000 km²) and in [9] for the size of the Peruvian Amazon (677,048 km^two). For the latter, see Table S2, Figure S2 from their Supplementary materials.

Nosotros analyzed indigenous territory maps in Republic of peru [75] and Ecuador [R. Sierra, unpublished data] and recorded the number of overlaps with oil and gas blocks.

Supporting Information

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Ellie Happel, Peter Kostishack, Michael Valqui, Tim Killeen, Nigel Pitman, and two bearding reviewers for helpful comments on before drafts of this work. We thank Fernando Ponce and Mariana Vale for the Abstruse translations in Spanish (Abstract S1) and Portuguese (Abstruse S2), respectively.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: MF. Analyzed the data: MF CJ. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: MF CJ. Wrote the paper: MF CJ SP BK CR. Formatted figures: CJ.

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